Various ligands and receptors belonging to the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily have been identified in the art. Included among such ligands are tumor necrosis factor-alpha (“TNF-alpha”), tumor necrosis factor-beta (“TNF-beta” or “lymphotoxin-alpha”), lymphotoxin-beta (“Lt-beta”), CD30 ligand, CD27 ligand, CD40 ligand, OX-40 ligand, 4-1BB ligand, LIGHT, Apo-1 ligand (also referred to as Fas ligand or CD95 ligand), Apo-2 ligand (also referred to as Apo2L or TRAIL), Apo-3 ligand (also referred to as TWEAK), APRIL, OPG ligand (also referred to as RANK ligand, ODF, or TRANCE), and TALL-1 (also referred to as BlyS, BAFF or THANK) (See, e.g., Ashkenazi, Nature Review, 2:420-430 (2002); Ashkenazi and Dixit, Science, 281:1305-1308 (1998); Ashkenazi and Dixit, Curr. Opin. Cell Biol., 11:255-260 (2000); Golstein, Curr. Biol., 7:750-753 (1997) Wallach, Cytokine Reference, Academic Press, 2000, pages 377-411; Locksley et al., Cell, 104:487-501 (2001); Gruss and Dower, Blood, 85:3378-3404 (1995); Schmid et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 83:1881 (1986); Dealtry et al., Eur. J. Immunol., 17:689 (1987); Pitti et al., J. Biol. Chem., 271:12687-12690 (1996); Wiley et al., Immunity, 3:673-682 (1995); Browning et al., Cell, 72:847-856 (1993); Armitage et al. Nature, 357:80-82 (1992); WO 97/01633 published Jan. 16, 1997; WO 97/25428 published Jul. 17, 1997; Marsters et al., Curr. Biol., 8:525-528 (1998); Chicheportiche et al., Biol. Chem., 272:32401-32410 (1997); Hahne et al., J. Exp. Med., 188:1185-1190 (1998); WO98/28426 published Jul. 2, 1998; WO98/46751 published Oct. 22, 1998; WO/98/18921 published May 7, 1998; Moore et al., Science, 285:260-263 (1999); Shu et al., J. Leukocyte Biol., 65:680 (1999); Schneider et al., J. Exp. Med., 189:1747-1756 (1999); Mukhopadhyay et al., J. Biol. Chem., 274:15978-15981 (1999)).
Induction of various cellular responses mediated by such TNF family ligands is typically initiated by their binding to specific cell receptors. Some, but not all, TNF family ligands bind to, and induce various biological activity through, cell surface “death receptors” to activate caspases, or enzymes that carry out the cell death or apoptosis pathway (Salvesen et al., Cell, 91:443-446 (1997). Included among the members of the TNF receptor superfamily identified to date are TNFR1, TNFR2, TACI, GITR, CD27, OX-40, CD30, CD40, HVEM, Fas (also referred to as Apo-1 or CD95), DR4 (also referred to as TRAIL-R1), DR5 (also referred to as Apo-2 or TRAIL-R2), DcR1, DcR2, osteoprotegerin (OPG), RANK and Apo-3 (also referred to as DR3 or TRAMP) (see, e.g., Ashkenazi, Nature Reviews, 2:420-430 (2002); Ashkenazi and Dixit, Science, 281:1305-1308 (1998); Ashkenazi and Dixit, Curr. Opin. Cell Biol., 11:255-260 (2000); Golstein, Curr. Biol., 7:750-753 (1997) Wallach, Cytokine Reference, Academic Press, 2000, pages 377-411; Locksley et al., Cell, 104:487-501 (2001); Gruss and Dower, Blood, 85:3378-3404 (1995); Hohman et al., J. Biol. Chem., 264:14927-14934 (1989); Brockhaus et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 87:3127-3131 (1990); EP 417,563, published Mar. 20, 1991; Loetscher et al., Cell, 61:351 (1990); Schall et al., Cell, 61:361 (1990); Smith et al., Science, 248:1019-1023 (1990); Lewis et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 88:2830-2834 (1991); Goodwin et al., Mol. Cell. Biol., 11:3020-3026 (1991); Stamenkovic et al., EMBO J., 8:1403-1410 (1989); Mallett et al., EMBO J., 9:1063-1068 (1990); Anderson et al., Nature, 390:175-179 (1997); Chicheportiche et al., J. Biol. Chem., 272:32401-32410 (1997); Pan et al., Science, 276:111-113 (1997); Pan et al., Science, 277:815-818 (1997); Sheridan et al., Science, 277:818-821 (1997); Degli-Esposti et al., J. Exp. Med., 186:1165-1170 (1997); Marsters et al., Curr. Biol., 7:1003-1006 (1997); Tsuda et al., BBRC, 234:137-142 (1997); Nocentini et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 94:6216-6221 (1997); vonBulow et al., Science, 278:138-141 (1997)).
Most of these TNF receptor family members share the typical structure of cell surface receptors including extracellular, transmembrane and intracellular regions, while others are found naturally as soluble proteins lacking a transmembrane and intracellular domain. The extracellular portion of typical TNFRs contains a repetitive amino acid sequence pattern of multiple cysteine-rich domains (CRDs), starting from the NH2-terminus.
The ligand referred to as Apo-2L or TRAIL was identified several years ago as a member of the TNF family of cytokines. (see, e.g., Wiley et al., Immunity, 3:673-682 (1995); Pitti et al., J. Biol. Chem., 271:12697-12690 (1996); WO 97/01633; WO 97/25428; U.S. Pat. No. 5,763,223 issued Jun. 9, 1998; U.S. Pat. No. 6,284,236 issued Sep. 4, 2001). The full-length native sequence human Apo2L/TRAIL polypeptide is a 281 amino acid long, Type II transmembrane protein. Some cells can produce a natural soluble form of the polypeptide, through enzymatic cleavage of the polypeptide's extracellular region (Mariani et al., J. Cell. Biol., 137:221-229 (1997)). Crystallographic studies of soluble forms of Apo2L/TRAIL reveal a homotrimeric structure similar to the structures of TNF and other related proteins (Hymowitz et al., Molec. Cell, 4:563-571 (1999); Cha et al., Immunity, 11:253-261 (1999); Mongkolsapaya et al., Nature Structural Biology, 6:1048 (1999); Hymowitz et al., Biochemistry, 39:633-644 (2000)). Apo2L/TRAIL, unlike other TNF family members however, was found to have a unique structural feature in that three cysteine residues (at position 230 of each subunit in the homotrimer) together coordinate a zinc atom, and that the zinc binding is important for trimer stability and biological activity. (Hymowitz et al., supra; Bodmer et al., J. Biol. Chem., 275:20632-20637 (2000)).
It has been reported in the literature that Apo2L/TRAIL may play a role in immune system modulation, including autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis [see, e.g., Thomas et al., J. Immunol., 161:2195-2200 (1998); Johnsen et al., Cytokine, 11:664-672 (1999); Griffith et al., J. Exp. Med., 189:1343-1353 (1999); Song et al., J. Exp. Med., 191:1095-1103 (2000)].
Soluble forms of Apo2L/TRAIL have also been reported to induce apoptosis in a variety of cancer cells, including colon, lung, breast, prostate, bladder, kidney, ovarian and brain tumors, as well as melanoma, leukemia, and multiple myeloma (see, e.g., Wiley et al., supra; Pitti et al., supra; U.S. Pat. No. 6,030,945 issued Feb. 29, 2000; U.S. Pat. No. 6,746,668 issued Jun. 8, 2004; Rieger et al., FEBS Letters, 427:124-128 (1998); Ashkenazi et al., J. Clin. Invest., 104:155-162 (1999); Walczak et al., Nature Med., 5:157-163 (1999); Keane et al., Cancer Research, 59:734-741 (1999); Mizutani et al., Clin. Cancer Res., 5:2605-2612 (1999); Gazitt, Leukemia, 13:1817-1824 (1999); Yu et al., Cancer Res., 60:2384-2389 (2000); Chinnaiyan et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 97:1754-1759 (2000)). In vivo studies in murine tumor models further suggest that Apo2L/TRAIL, alone or in combination with chemotherapy or radiation therapy, can exert substantial anti-tumor effects (see, e.g., Ashkenazi et al., supra; Walzcak et al., supra; Gliniak et al., Cancer Res., 59:6153-6158 (1999); Chinnaiyan et al., supra; Roth et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm., 265:1999 (1999); PCT Application US/00/15512; PCT Application US/01/23691). In contrast to many types of cancer cells, most normal human cell types appear to be resistant to apoptosis induction by certain recombinant forms of Apo2L/TRAIL (Ashkenazi et al., supra; Walzcak et al., supra). Jo et al. has reported that a polyhistidine-tagged soluble form of Apo2L/TRAIL induced apoptosis in vitro in normal isolated human, but not non-human, hepatocytes (Jo et al., Nature Med., 6:564-567 (2000); see also, Nagata, Nature Med., 6:502-503 (2000)). It is believed that certain recombinant Apo2L/TRAIL preparations may vary in terms of biochemical properties and biological activities on diseased versus normal cells, depending, for example, on the presence or absence of a tag molecule, zinc content, and % trimer content (See, Lawrence et al., Nature Med., Letter to the Editor, 7:383-385 (2001); Qin et al., Nature Med., Letter to the Editor, 7:385-386 (2001)).
Apo2L/TRAIL has been found to bind at least five different receptors. At least two of the receptors which bind Apo2L/TRAIL contain a functional, cytoplasmic death domain. One such receptor has been referred to as “DR4” (and alternatively as TR4 or TRAIL-R1) (Pan et al., Science, 276:111-113 (1997); see also WO98/32856 published Jul. 30, 1998; WO99/37684 published Jul. 29, 1999; WO 00/73349 published Dec. 7, 2000; U.S. Pat. No. 6,433,147 issued Aug. 13, 2002; U.S. Pat. No. 6,461,823 issued Oct. 8, 2002, and U.S. Pat. No. 6,342,383 issued Jan. 29, 2002).
Another such receptor for Apo2L/TRAIL has been referred to as DR5 (it has also been alternatively referred to as Apo-2; TRAIL-R or TRAIL-R2, TR6, Tango-63, hAPO8, TRICK2 or KILLER) (see, e.g., Sheridan et al., Science, 277:818-821 (1997), Pan et al., Science, 277:815-818 (1997), WO98/51793 published Nov. 19, 1998; WO98/41629 published Sep. 24, 1998; Screaton et al., Curr. Biol., 7:693-696 (1997); Walczak et al., EMBO J., 16:5386-5387 (1997); Wu et al., Nature Genetics, 17:141-143 (1997); WO98/35986 published Aug. 20, 1998; EP870,827 published Oct. 14, 1998; WO98/46643 published Oct. 22, 1998; WO99/02653 published Jan. 21, 1999; WO99/09165 published Feb. 25, 1999; WO99/11791 published Mar. 11, 1999; US 2002/0072091 published Aug. 13, 2002; US 2002/0098550 published Dec. 7, 2001; U.S. Pat. No. 6,313,269 issued Dec. 6, 2001; US 2001/0010924 published Aug. 2, 2001; US 2003/01255540 published Jul. 3, 2003; US 2002/0160446 published Oct. 31, 2002, US 2002/0048785 published Apr. 25, 2002; U.S. Pat. No. 6,342,369 issued February, 2002; U.S. Pat. No. 6,569,642 issued May 27, 2003, U.S. Pat. No. 6,072,047 issued Jun. 6, 2000, U.S. Pat. No. 6,642,358 issued Nov. 4, 2003; U.S. Pat. No. 6,743,625 issued Jun. 1, 2004). Like DR4, DR5 is reported to contain a cytoplasmic death domain and be capable of signaling apoptosis upon ligand binding (or upon binding a molecule, such as an agonist antibody, which mimics the activity of the ligand). The crystal structure of the complex formed between Apo-2L/TRAIL and DR5 is described in Hymowitz et al., Molecular Cell, 4:563-571 (1999).
Upon ligand binding, both DR4 and DR5 can trigger apoptosis independently by recruiting and activating the apoptosis initiator, caspase-8, through the death-domain-containing adaptor molecule referred to as FADD/Mort1 [Kischkel et al., Immunity, 12:611-620 (2000); Sprick et al., Immunity, 12:599-609 (2000); Bodmer et al., Nature Cell Biol., 2:241-243 (2000)].
Apo2L/TRAIL has been reported to also bind those receptors referred to as DcR1, DcR2 and OPG, which believed to function as inhibitors, rather than transducers of signaling (see., e.g., DCR1 (also referred to as TRID, LIT or TRAIL-R3) [Pan et al., Science, 276:111-113 (1997); Sheridan et al., Science, 277:818-821 (1997); McFarlane et al., J. Biol. Chem., 272:25417-25420 (1997); Schneider et al., FEBS Letters, 416:329-334 (1997); Degli-Esposti et al., J. Exp. Med., 186:1165-1170 (1997); and Mongkolsapaya et al., J. Immunol., 160:3-6 (1998); DCR2 (also called TRUNDD or TRAIL-R4) [Marsters et al., Curr. Biol., 7:1003-1006 (1997); Pan et al., FEBS Letters, 424:41-45 (1998); Degli-Esposti et al., Immunity, 7:813-820 (1997)], and OPG [Simonet et al., supra]. In contrast to DR4 and DR5, the DcR1 and DcR2 receptors do not signal apoptosis.
Certain antibodies which bind to the DR4 and/or DR5 receptors have been reported in the literature. For example, anti-DR4 antibodies directed to the DR4 receptor and having agonistic or apoptotic activity in certain mammalian cells are described in, e.g., WO 99/37684 published Jul. 29, 1999; WO 00/73349 published Jul. 12, 2000; WO 03/066661 published Aug. 14, 2003. See, also, e.g., Griffith et al., J. Immunol., 162:2597-2605 (1999); Chuntharapai et al., J. Immunol., 166:4891-4898 (2001); WO 02/097033 published Dec. 2, 2002; WO 03/042367 published May 22, 2003; WO 03/038043 published May 8, 2003; WO 03/037913 published May 8, 2003. Certain anti-DR5 antibodies have likewise been described, see, e.g., WO 98/51793 published Nov. 8, 1998; Griffith et al., J. Immunol., 162:2597-2605 (1999); Ichikawa et al., Nature Med., 7:954-960 (2001); Hylander et al., “An Antibody to DR5 (TRAIL-Receptor 2) Suppresses the Growth of Patient Derived Gastrointestinal Tumors Grown in SCID mice”, Abstract, 2d International Congress on Monoclonal Antibodies in Cancers, Aug. 29-Sep. 1, 2002, Banff, Alberta, Canada; WO 03/038043 published May 8, 2003; WO 03/037913 published May 8, 2003. In addition, certain antibodies having cross-reactivity to both DR4 and DR5 receptors have been described (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,252,050 issued Jun. 26, 2001).
Neoplastic transformation of some mammalian cells has in certain instances, been associated with characteristic changes in the expression of sialyl Lewis A and sialyl Lewis X antigens. Relatively high amounts of sialyl Lewis A/X are present, for example, in some human adenocarcinomas of the colon, pancreas and stomach, and assays using antibodies directed to the carbohydrate structures on these antigens have been employed as a means to detect pancreatic and gastrointestinal cancers. (see, e.g., Ugorski et al., Acta Biochimica Polonica, 49:2:303-311 (2002). The level of expression of these carbohydrate tumor markers has also been correlated with clinical outcome, patient survival times and an indicator of metastatic disease.
Both sialyl Lewis A and sialyl Lewis X have been shown to bind to a family of carbohydrate-binding proteins involved in the extravasation of cells from the bloodstream, called the selectins. Some reports suggest that sialyl Lewis A and X are ligands for E-selectin, and may be responsible for the adhesion of human cancer cells to endothelium. Sialylated Lewis structures present on the surface of cancer cells are carried by the carbohydrate chains of glycoproteins and glycolipids and bind E-selectin present on endothelial cells. Selectins and their carbohydrate ligands may accordingly play an important role in the selective homing of tumor cells during metastasis.
The biosynthesis of sialyl Lewis A and X is believed to be dependent upon the final addition of fucose from guanosine diphosphate-fucose (GDP-Fuc) in alpha (1,3) and alpha (1,4) linkage to sialylated precursors by cell type-specific and developmental stage-specific enzymes, a step catalyzed by alpha-1,3/1,4-fucosyltransferases (alpha 1,3/1,4 Fuc-T, FUT).
Several human fucosyltransferase genes have been cloned and characterized to date. Expression of these genes (FUT 3-7) and their enzyme products (Fuc-TIII-VII) appears to be tissue specific. The enzymes encoded by the five genes are named FUTIII, FUTIV, FUTV, FUTVI and FUTVII. The three genes encoding FUTIII, FUTV and FUTVI are localized at close physical positions on chromosome 19p13.3. Biochemical and molecular cloning studies suggest that lineage-specific expression of the sialyl Lewis A/X moiety is determined by lineage-specific expression of alpha-1,3-fucosyltransferase genes, whose enzyme products operate on constitutively expressed oligosaccharide precursors to yield surface-localized sialyl Lewis A/X determinants. The human fucosyltransferases responsible for activity in epithelial tissues are FUT3 and FUT6. FUT3 [also called the Lewis alpha (1,3/1,4)fucosyltransferase gene] and FUT6 [the plasma alpha (1,3)fucosyltransferase gene] transcripts are present in both normal and transformed tissues. Fucosyltransferase transcripts are also prevalent in numerous adenocarcinoma cell lines, with notably high expression of FUT3 and 6 in colon carcinoma. (see, e.g, Ugorski et al., Acta Biochimica Polonica, 49:303-311 (2002); Nakamori et al., Dis. Colon Rectum., 40:420-431 (1997); Takada et al., Cancer Res., 53:354-361 (1993); Ichikawa et al., J. Surg. Oncol., 75:98-102 (2000)); Nakagoe et al., J Exp Clin Cancer Res., 2002 March;21(1):107-13; Matsumoto et al., Br J Cancer. 2002 Jan. 21;86(2):161-7; Ito et al., J Gastroenterol. 2001 December;36(12):823-9; Nakagoe et al., Cancer Detect Prev. 2001;25(3):299-308; Kumamoto et al., Cancer Res. 2001 Jun. 1;61(11):4620-7; Murata et al., Dis Colon Rectum. 2001 April;44(4):A2-A4; Nakagoe et al., J Exp Clin Cancer Res. 2001 March;20(1):85-90; Nakagoe et al., J Gastroenterol. 2001 March;36(3):166-72; Nakagoe et al., Tumour Biol. 2001 March-April;22(2):115-22; Nakagoe et al., Can J Gastroenterol. 2000 October;14(9):753-60; Izawa et al., Cancer Res. 2000 Mar. 1;60(5):1410-6; Tanaka et al., Hepatogastroenterology. 1999 March-April; 46(26):875-82; Matsushita et al., Cancer Lett. 1998 Nov. 27;133(2):151-60; Sato et al. , Anticancer Res. 1997 September-October;17(5A):3505-11; Yamada et al., Br J Cancer. 1997;76(5):582-7; Nakamori et al., Dis Colon Rectum. 1997 April;40(4):420-31; Srinivas et al., Scand J Immunol. 1996 September;44(3):197-203; Matsushita et al., Lab Invest. 1990 December;63(6):780-91; Ashizawa et al., J Exp Clin Cancer Res. 2003 March;22(1):91-8; Nakagoe et al., J Exp Clin Cancer Res. 2002 September;21(3):363-9; Nakagoe et al., Anticancer Res. 2002 January-Febuary;22(1A):451-8; Nakagoe et al., J Clin Gastroenterol. 2002 April;34(4):408-15; Nakagoe et al., Cancer Lett. 2002 Jan. 25;175(2):213-21; Tatsumi et al., Clin Exp Metastasis. 1998 November;16(8):743-50; Ikeda et al., J Surg Oncol. 1996 July;62(3):171-6; Ikeda et al., Eur J Surg Oncol. 1995 April;21(2):168-75; Togayachi et al., Int J Cancer. 1999 Sep. 24;83(1):70-9; Satoh et al., Clin Cancer Res. 1997 April;3(4):495-9; Satoh et al., Respiration. 1998;65(4):295-8; Satoh et al., Anticancer Res. 1998 July-August;18(4B):2865-8; Fukuoka et al., Lung Cancer. 1998 May;20(2):109-16; Fujiwara et al., Anticancer Res. 1998 March-April;18(2A):1043-6; Ogawa et al., Int J Cancer. 1997 Apr. 22;74(2):189-92; Ogawa et al., J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1994 August;108(2):329-36; Asao et al., Cancer. 1989 Dec. 15;64(12):2541-5; Narita et al., Breast Cancer. 1996 Mar. 29;3(l):19-23; Yamaguchi et al., Oncology. 1998 July-August;55(4):357-62; Sikut et al., Int J Cancer. 1996 May 29;66(5):617-23; Saito et al., Anticancer Res. 2003 July-August;23(4):3441-6; Fujii et al., Urol Int. 2000;64(3):129-33; Idikio et al., Glycoconj J. 1997 November;14(7):875-7; Inoue et al., Obstet Gynecol. 1992 March;79(3):434-40; Yamashita et al., Eur J Cancer. 2000 January;36(1):113-20; Hamanaka et al., Pancreas. 1996 August;13(2):160-5; Ho et al., Cancer Res. 1995 Aug. 15;55(16):3659-63.